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There are times, however, when expressing emotion may be harmful (Gross & Muñoz, 1995;Kennedy-Moore & Watson, 2001). For example, the chronic expression of negative emotion (inparticular, anger) is a risk factor in cardiovascular disease (Adler & Matthews, 1994). At times, itmay be more adaptive to suppress rather than express emotion (Consedine et al., 2002; Parrott,1993). The ability to hide one’s feelings is useful in myriad social situations (e.g., not showingfear while presenting a speech, minimizing the expression of anger during conflict mediation)and the idea that this ability is important resonates with evolutionary considerations of theubiquity and survival value of deception (de Waal, 1989; Trivers, 1985). In extremely adverseconditions, the ability to modulate display of negative emotions can foster the recovery ofnormal functioning (Bonanno & Keltner, 1997), help maintain and expand social networks(Coyne, 1976; Harber & Pennebaker, 1992), and facilitate close personal relationships (Levenson& Gottman, 1983).
Despite its potential usefulness, expressive suppression, like emotional expression, mayextract serious costs if employed indiscriminately or chronically. To measure emotionalsuppression, Gross and Levenson (1993, 1997) developed a between-subjects paradigm in whichsome subjects were instructed to conceal all outward signs of emotion and then exposed toemotional stimuli. Using this paradigm, Gross and Levenson found that although suppressingsubjects reported the same level of negative experience as control subjects, they exhibitedheightened sympathetic activity (Gross, 1998a; Gross & Levenson, 1993, 1997), had poorermemory for the emotional stimuli (Richards & Gross, 2000), and engendered reduced rapportand willingness to affiliate in dyadic partners (Butler et al., 2003).
Although the confluence of this evidence clearly suggests that successful adaptation
depends on the ability to both enhance and suppress emotional expression and to do so flexiblyin accord with situational demands, this idea has never been tested directly. The currentinvestigation was designed to redress this deficit by examining subject’s performance in alaboratory study of expressive regulation as a prospective predictor of their adjustment followinga potentially stressful life transition. More specifically, we modified the between-subjectssuppression paradigm developed by Gross and Levenson (1993) in two important ways. First, to
examine the ability of individuals to flexibly regulate emotional expression both upward anddownward, we developed a within-subjects task that included conditions for the enhancementand the suppression of emotional expression, as well as a control condition in which participantswere instructed to behave as they would normally. Our inspiration for this design was a recentwithin-subjects study of enhancement and suppression of emotional experience (Jackson,Malmstadt, Larson, & Davidson, 2000). By manipulating expressive regulation within subjects,
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