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There were several limitations to the study. First, we used only one kind of emotional
stimuli, a set of standardized emotion-evoking picture stimuli, and one type of social action,
communicating or concealing one’s emotions from an observer in another room. Although this
approach enabled us to vary stimuli and experimental condition on every block of trials, it will
be important for future studies of expressive flexibility to explore other types of stimuli (e.g.,
evocative films) and other types of social interaction (e.g., dyadic interactions), and to examine
whether suppression and enhancement produce different effects for specific emotions. The
current study was also limited by its use of college students. The methodological and conceptual
advantages of manipulating emotion regulation within subjects, demonstrated here and in other
studies (e.g., Jackson et al., 2000), suggest the value of exploring this paradigm in future studies
using more varied samples.
Within the context of these limitations, the experimental measurement of expressive
flexibility presents several new avenues for investigating expressive regulation in relation to
psychological and physical health. Much of the contemporary research on emotion regulation
and adjustment has focused on the frequency with which people express or suppress emotion
and, consequently, has relied heavily on self-reports of emotional behavior (e.g., Gross & John,
1997). Although this work has led to considerable advances in understanding of these behaviors,
there are limits to when and how well people can accurately report on their emotional life over
time (Robinson & Clore, 2002). This concern is to a large extent obviated by the type of withinsubjects
experimental paradigm employed in the current study, which focused on regulatory
ability rather than self-reported frequency. Future studies might examine how the experimental
measurement of expressive flexibility compares to self-report measures of both emotional
experience and expression, or to other related processes such as linguistic flexibility (Campbell
& Pennebaker, 2003). It should also be fruitful to compare how expressive flexibility relates to
more broadly defined positive emotion concepts, such as emotional intelligence (Barrett &
Gross, 2001; Salovey, 2001).
The flexibility paradigm also offers a relatively objective, standardized method for
examining the relation between emotion regulation and adjustment across different populations
and situations. For example, expressive flexibility might be examined as a predictor variable
among individuals exposed to highly stressful events or in comparative studies of emotional
difficulties across different forms of psychopathology (Kring & Bachorowski, 1999). In a similar
vein, the measurement of expressive flexibility offers a novel perspective on the health costs
