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for each subject the difference between the total levels of emotion (positive and negative)
expressed in the enhancement and control conditions and the difference between the total levels
of emotion expressed in the suppression and control conditions. The enhancement and
suppression ability scores were then summed to create an overall flexibility score (i.e., higher
overall scores indicated greater ability to both enhance and suppress).
To examine the predicted relationships of enhancement and suppression ability to
improved long-term adjustment, we conducted a series of hierarchical regressions using T2
distress as the dependent variable. The first step in each analysis included distress at T1 as a
control for initial levels of distress. The T1 distress variable also controlled for the possibility
that deficits in cognitive resources and motivation among highly distressed individuals
influenced their performance in the expressive-regulation task. As an additional control for this
factor, the initial step in each analysis also included the number of problems completed during
the 10-min filler task (M = 35.39, SD = 8.04). This variable was mildly inversely correlated with
T1 distress (r = -.19, p < .05) and mildly positively correlated with expressive ability (r = .20, p
= .05). The regression analyses are summarized in Table 2.
The initial regression step combining T1 distress and number of filler problems was
significant, accounting for 11% of the variance in T2 distress. Adding the two variables
representing expressive-enhancement and expressive-suppression ability on a subsequent step
explained an additional 7% of the variance in T2 distress and significantly increased the overall
R2 of the equation to .18, F(2, 76) = 3.13, p < .05. In the next analysis, we replaced the
enhancement and suppression variables with the summed flexibility score, which also explained
an additional 7% of the variance in T2 distress, F(1, 77) = 6.33, p < .05. Together, these analyses
indicate that the abilities to enhance and suppress the expression of emotion each independently
contributed to long-term adjustment regardless of level of adjustment prior to the experiment or
cognitive resources and motivation. Thus, people who possess both of these abilities (i.e.,
expressive flexibility) will tend to have the best long-term adjustment, and people low in both
abilities will tend to have the poorest long-term adjustment.
A possible alternative explanation for these findings is that generally people tend to show
greater ability in one form of expressive regulation than the other and that the combined score,
rather than representing flexibility, may represent extreme polarity (i.e., extremely high scores on
one ability). Indeed, although we expected expressive enhancement and expressive suppression
to be mildly positively correlated, these variables were actually moderately inversely correlated
